The Alhambra palace complex in Granada.In the 8th century, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Muslim armies (see Moors) from North Africa. These conquests were part of the expansion of the Umayyad Islamic Empire.Only a number of areas in the mountainous north of the Iberian Peninsula managed to resist the initial invasion and they were the starters of the Reconquista. These areas roughly corresponding to modern Asturias, Cantabria, Navarre and northern Aragon.
Under Islam, Christians and Jews were recognised as "peoples of the book", and were free to practice their religion, but faced a number of mandatory discriminations and penalties as dhimmis. Conversion to Islam proceeded at a steadily increasing pace. The muladies are believed to have comprised the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century. La Giralda, the bell tower of the Seville Cathedral.The Muslim community in the Iberian peninsula was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. The Berber people of North Africa, who had provided the bulk of the invading armies, clashed with the Arab leadership from the Middle East.Over time, large Moorish populations became established, especially in the Guadalquivir River valley, the coastal plain of Valencia, the Ebro River valley and in the mountainous region of Granada.
Córdoba, the capital of the caliphate, was the largest, richest and most sophisticated city of medieval western Europe.[note 11] Mediterranean trade and cultural exchange flourished. Muslims imported a rich intellectual tradition from the Middle East and North Africa. Muslim and Jewish scholars played an important part in reviving and expanding classical Greek learning in Western Europe. The Romanized cultures of the Iberian peninsula interacted with Muslim and Jewish cultures in complex ways, thus giving the region a distinctive culture. Outside the cities, where the vast majority lived, the land ownership system from Roman times remained largely intact as Muslim leaders rarely dispossessed landowners, and the introduction of new crops and techniques led to a remarkable expansion of agriculture.
However, by the 11th century, Muslim holdings had fractured into rival Taifa kingdoms, allowing the small Christian states the opportunity to greatly enlarge their territories and consolidate their positions.The arrival of the North African Muslim ruling sects of the Almoravids and the Almohads restored unity upon Muslim holdings, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, but ultimately, after some successes in invading the north, proved unable to resist the increasing military strength of the Christian states.
Branches of government
Spain is a constitutional monarchy, with a hereditary monarch and a bicameral parliament, the Cortes Generales. The executive branch consists of a Council of Ministers presided over by the President of Government (comparable to a prime minister), nominated and appointed by the monarch and confirmed by the Congress of Deputies following legislative elections. By political custom established by King Juan Carlos since the ratification of the 1978 Constitution, the king's nominees have all been from parties who maintain a plurality of seats in the Congress.
The legislative branch is made up of the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados) with 350 members, elected by popular vote on block lists by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, and a Senate (Senado) with 259 seats of which 208 are directly elected by popular vote and the other 51 appointed by the regional legislatures to also serve four-year terms.
Spain is a constitutional monarchy, with a hereditary monarch and a bicameral parliament, the Cortes Generales. The executive branch consists of a Council of Ministers presided over by the President of Government (comparable to a prime minister), nominated and appointed by the monarch and confirmed by the Congress of Deputies following legislative elections. By political custom established by King Juan Carlos since the ratification of the 1978 Constitution, the king's nominees have all been from parties who maintain a plurality of seats in the Congress.
The legislative branch is made up of the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados) with 350 members, elected by popular vote on block lists by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, and a Senate (Senado) with 259 seats of which 208 are directly elected by popular vote and the other 51 appointed by the regional legislatures to also serve four-year terms.
The legislative branch is made up of the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados) with 350 members, elected by popular vote on block lists by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, and a Senate (Senado) with 259 seats of which 208 are directly elected by popular vote and the other 51 appointed by the regional legislatures to also serve four-year terms.
Spain is a constitutional monarchy, with a hereditary monarch and a bicameral parliament, the Cortes Generales. The executive branch consists of a Council of Ministers presided over by the President of Government (comparable to a prime minister), nominated and appointed by the monarch and confirmed by the Congress of Deputies following legislative elections. By political custom established by King Juan Carlos since the ratification of the 1978 Constitution, the king's nominees have all been from parties who maintain a plurality of seats in the Congress.
The legislative branch is made up of the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados) with 350 members, elected by popular vote on block lists by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, and a Senate (Senado) with 259 seats of which 208 are directly elected by popular vote and the other 51 appointed by the regional legislatures to also serve four-year terms.
Get Cheap Car Insurance
org is committed to helping you find the car insurance coverage that best meets your needs at cheaper, inexpensive rates. Whatever your circumstance--whether you've got a spotty driving record, reside in a busy city, have teenagers who drive, are male rather than female, or have a low credit rating--AutoInsure.org wants to help you find the cheapest and most affordable insurance to protect you, your family, and your car. Just enter your zip code above, and we'll compare rates from leading companies to get you the cheapest car insurance rates in the industry.Is it time for a new auto insurance policy? Whether your insurance policy is expiring, or you just do not feel like you are getting the most out of your dollar, we can help. AutoInsure.org is the most convenient place to find the best car insurance rates, no matter what your needs. We provide a fast, easy, FREE quote process; quotes from all the major auto insurance companies; and competitive rates tailored to your specific budget and needs. AutoInsure.org offers free quotes for the following types of auto insurance: Antique Car Insurance, Auto Gap Insurance, Auto Insurance Quote, Auto Insurance Rate, Car Insurance Broker, Car Insurance for Women, Car Insurance Options, Car Insurance Quote, Car Insurance Rate, Classic Car Insurance, Collector Car Insurance, High Risk Auto Insurance, Military Car Insurance, No Fault Insurance, Senior Car Insurance, Student Car Insurance, SUV Insurance, Teen Car Insurance, and Truck Insurance. AutoInsure.org is committed to helping you find the car insurance coverage that best meets your needs. We aim to provide customized information on auto insurance that will protect you, your family, and your car. Just enter your zip code, and get fast and reliable access to the information you need!
What are smartphones?
In a nutshell, a smartphone is the result of the marriage of cell phone and PDA technologies combined. With advanced operating systems and traditional cellular phone capabilities, smartphones enable you to wirelessly browse the Web, access corporate or personal email, manage your calendar, contacts, and more. Some smartphone platforms also include built-in multitasking capabilities to seamlessly manage multiple applications — email, phone, IM, and Internet — all at the same time
Beaches in Kerala
Varkala beachFlanked on the western coast by the Arabian Sea, Kerala has a long coastline of 580 km (360.39 miles); all of which is virtually dotted with sandy beaches.Kovalam beach near Thiruvananthapuram was among the first beaches in Kerala to attract tourists. Rediscovered by back-packers and tan-seekers in the sixties and followed by hordes of hippies in the seventies, Kovalam is today the most visited tourist destination in the state.Other popularly visited beaches in the state include those at Alappuzha Beach,Nattika beach.Vadanappilly beach, Cherai Beach, Kappad, Kovalam, Marari beach, Fort Kochi and Varkala. The Muzhappilangad Beach beach at Kannur is the only drive-in beach in India.
Historical context
Today, resorts such as this dot the length and breadth of Kerala.Since its incorporation as a state, Kerala's economy largely operated under welfare-based democratic socialist principles. This mode of development, though resulted in a high Human Development Index and standard of living among the people, lead to an economic stagnation in the 1980s This apparent paradox — high human development and low economic development — lead to a large number of educated unemployed seeking jobs overseas, especially in the Gulf countries. Due to the large number of expatriates, many travel operators and agencies set shop in the state to felicitate their travel needs. However, the trends soon reciprocated with the travel agencies noticing the undermined potential of the state as a tourist destination.By 1986, tourism had gained an industry status. Kerala Tourism subsequently adopted the tagline God's Own Country in its advertisement campaigns. Aggressive promotion in print and electronic media were able to invite a sizable investment in the hospitality industry. By the early 2000s, tourism had grown into a fully fledged, multi-billion dollar industry in the state. The state was able to carve a niche place for itself in the world tourism industry, thus becoming one of the places with the 'highest brand recall'. In 2003, Kerala, a hitherto unknown tourism destination, became the fastest growing tourism destination in the world.
Today, growing at a rate of 13.31%, Kerala is one of the most visited tourism destinations in India
Tourism in Kerala
The official logo of Kerala Tourism Kerala, a state situated on the tropical Malabar Coast of southwestern India, is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the country. Named as one of the ten paradises of the world by the National Geographic Traveler, Kerala is famous especially for its ecotourism initiatives.Its unique culture and traditions, coupled with its varied demography, has made Kerala one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world. Growing at a rate of 13.31%, the tourism industry is a major contributor to the state's economy.Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a hitherto unknown destination, with most tourism circuits concentrated around the north of the country. Aggressive marketing campaigns launched by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation—the government agency that oversees tourism prospects of the state—laid the foundation for the growth of the tourism industry. In the decades that followed, Kerala Tourism was able to transform itself into one of the niche holiday destinations in India. The tag line Kerala- God's Own Country was adopted in its tourism promotions and became synonymous with the state. Today, Kerala Tourism is a global superbrand and regarded as one of the destinations with the highest brand recall. In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourists–an increase of 23.68% in foreign tourist arrivals compared to the previous year, thus making it one of the fastest growing tourism destination in the world.Popular attractions in the state include the beaches at Kovalam, Cherai and Varkala; the hill stations of Munnar, Nelliampathi, Ponmudi and Wayanad; and national parks and wildlife sanctuaries at Periyar and Eravikulam National Park. The "backwaters" region—an extensive network of interlocking rivers, lakes, and canals that centre on Alleppey, Kumarakom, and Punnamada—also see heavy tourist traffic. Heritage sites, such as the Padmanabhapuram Palace, Hill Palace, Mattancherry Palace are also visited. Cities such as Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram are popular centres for shopping and traditional theatrical performances.
The state's tourism agenda promotes ecologically sustained tourism, which focuses on the local culture, wilderness adventures, volunteering and personal growth of the local population. Efforts are taken to minimise the adverse effects of traditional tourism on the natural environment, and enhance the cultural integrity of local people.
The state's tourism agenda promotes ecologically sustained tourism, which focuses on the local culture, wilderness adventures, volunteering and personal growth of the local population. Efforts are taken to minimise the adverse effects of traditional tourism on the natural environment, and enhance the cultural integrity of local people.
International tourism receipts
In 2008, there were over 922 million international tourist arrivals, with a growth of 1.9% as compared to 2007. International tourism receipts grew to US$944 billion (euro 642 billion) in 2008, corresponding to an increase in real terms of 1.8% on 2007. When the export value of international passenger transport receipts is accounted for, total receipts in 2008 reached a record of US$1.1 trillion, or over US$3 b
illion a day.The World Tourism Organization reports the following countries as the top ten tourism earners for the year 2007. It is noticeable that most of them are on the European continent, but the United States continues to be the top earner.v
Benefits of Nitric Oxide
- Drastic Muscle Gains
- Increased Blood Flow and Oxygen Delivery to Muscles
- Transform Your Body
- Boost Your Strength, Endurance and Power
- Improve Your Overall Health
WASHINGTON
Congressional Democrats say creating a new federally run health insurance program would lower costs by bringing more competition into the marketplace.triggerAd
But some health economists and health insurance industry spokesmen say reforming the existing health insurance industry could accomplish the same goal without the need for a public plan.
Advocates of a non-profit public plan say it could charge lower premiums, would spend less on marketing and commissions, and would enroll enough people to wrest discounts from doctors and hospitals. Creating a public plan that reimburses doctors and hospitals at the same rate as Medicare would save $3 trillion over 10 years, the Commonwealth Fund estimates.
Critics counter that a government health insurance plan would draw people away from private insurers, eventually putting them out of business and moving the country closer to a "single-payer" system in which the federal government would be the sole source of health care financing.
"If you look at the way government programs operate today, Medicare only reimburses hospitals about 85 percent of hospital costs," said Robert Zirkelbach, spokesman for America's Health Insurance Plans, an industry trade association. "So they are underpaying hospitals for the services that are provided to hospital patients. The only reason hospitals don't go bankrupt today is that they pass those costs along to employers and families with private coverage."
Zirkelbach said a government-run health insurance plan open to all Americans would put the health insurance industry into "a death spiral."
One possible way to reform the system from within is to borrow the approach used by non-profits such as Kaiser Permanente, HIP in New York and Geisinger Health Plan in northeastern Pennsylvania, said Karen Davis, president of the Commonwealth Fund, a health policy think tank.
Those companies keep costs down by paying providers on a per-capita basis instead of based on how many tests and surgical procedures they perform, she said.
-->(2 of 2)
Only about 10 percent of Americans are enrolled in such plans, Davis said. The challenge, she said, is to make those plans the rule rather than the exception. But that approach would lower costs much more slowly than a government-run insurance plan, Davis said.
triggerAd(2,PaginationPage,10);
For-profit insurers generally pay health care providers about 80 cents for every dollar in revenues they get in premiums, while non-profits pay about 90 cents, said Howard Berliner, an expert in health care organization at SUNY Downstate Medical Center in New York City. Medicare, the government insurance program for the elderly, is even more efficient, paying 96 cents on the collar.
There's other evidence that more competition isn't necessarily the solution to rising health care costs, according to Bruce McPherson, president and CEO of The Alliance for Advancing Nonprofit Health Care. Of the 16 states dominated by one or two health insurers, 15 have Medicare costs below the national average, McPherson said.
States vary according to how much one or two insurers dominate the market.
In three states -- New York, Florida and Oklahoma -- fewer than 50 percent of health insurance enrollees are covered by the two largest insurance plans in each state.
Among fee-for-service health plans and HMOs, Well Point Inc. and GHI account for 46 percent of statewide enrollment in New York.
Looking at HMOs alone, eight serve Westchester County, 11 serve the Hudson Valley to the north, and three serve Rochester, according to the New York State Insurance Department.
But New Yorkers who work for small employers usually have access to only one health plan -- if one is offered.
The insurance picture is much different in other parts of the country.
Two insurers account for 70 percent of enrollment in Illinois, 77 percent in Georgia and 89 percent in Iowa, according to a 2008 study by the American Medical Association.
News
“Kantipur” the synonym for trusted news and your right to information.Kantipur Television’s eight news bulletins in a day, keeps you well informed in the happenings of the country as well as important happenings around the world.The news bulletins are appropriately placed between 7:00 am and 10:00 pm, to match with your convenient viewing time. The timings are 8:00 am, 12:00 noon, 4:00 pm, 6:00 pm, 7:00 pm and our special One Hour News Bulletin is at 8:30 pm. This hour- long bulletin covers all the news in detail and with in-depth analysis as well as a guest speaker to talk on the issue of the day. Apart from the news bulletins Kantipur even has Samachar Sanchipt, an hourly news headline, just a step to update its viewers.
“Janmat” a segment in the prime time news bulletin gained instant popularity with the the viewers when it was first launched. As a result, most of the television stations have now copied the idea using different names.
Kantipur Samachar is already the most viewed news programme amongst all the other television news bulletins. With hardworking news crew and backed by state-of-the-art equipment, Kantipur hopes to remain the leader in news reporting.
Personal blogs
The personal blog, an ongoing diary or commentary by an individual, is the traditional, most common blog. Personal bloggers usually take pride in their blog posts, even if their blog is never read by anyone but them. Blogs often become more than a way to just communicate; they become a way to reflect on life or works of art. Blogging can have a sentimental quality. Few personal blogs rise to fame and the mainstream, but some personal blogs quickly garner an extensive following. A type of personal blog is referred to as "microblogging," which is extremely detailed blogging as it seeks to capture a moment in time. Sites, such as Twitter, allow bloggers to share thoughts and feelings instantaneously with friends and family and is much faster than e-mailing or writing. Are Men Better Drivers Than Women?
For years, it's been the same argument. Men are better drivers than women. Despite the lack of any real proof, there are few men that would honestly put their hands on their hearts and admit that their wives or girlfriends were better drivers than they are.
So, who is more likely to get a traffic violation? Or be in a fatal accident? When the question is asked that way, it might give even the most proud male driver a moment of pause.
Insurance companies have already made up their minds on the matter—and they have the data to back it up.
"All the evidence points to young males having riskier driving habits than young females. Men between the ages of 16 and 25 are much more likely to be involved in accidents, or be cited for traffic violations," explains Insurance.com VP, Sam Belden. "Insurance companies bear this kind of behavior in mind when quoting rates."
Insurance.com's own data supports this, too. Based upon information provided by consumers in the first half of 2008, Insurance.com reports that 68% of women have no traffic violations versus 64% of men.
Of those reporting violations, 30% of women have 1–3 traffic violations versus 33% of men, and 2% of women have 4+ traffic violations versus 3% of men.
So, who is more likely to get a traffic violation? Or be in a fatal accident? When the question is asked that way, it might give even the most proud male driver a moment of pause.
Insurance companies have already made up their minds on the matter—and they have the data to back it up.
"All the evidence points to young males having riskier driving habits than young females. Men between the ages of 16 and 25 are much more likely to be involved in accidents, or be cited for traffic violations," explains Insurance.com VP, Sam Belden. "Insurance companies bear this kind of behavior in mind when quoting rates."
Insurance.com's own data supports this, too. Based upon information provided by consumers in the first half of 2008, Insurance.com reports that 68% of women have no traffic violations versus 64% of men.
Of those reporting violations, 30% of women have 1–3 traffic violations versus 33% of men, and 2% of women have 4+ traffic violations versus 3% of men.
My Story
I started having problems with pain and vision lost in my right eye in the 1990. Because i had a previous eye injury when i was 13 and then had a lense implant in 1986 i first thought was that the symptons that i experience was due to this. I also had another blow to right eye by a falling object in 1990.After weeks of suffering i finally went to see the optometrist that did the lense implant. By that time i could only see very large object in front of me and had severe pain in my right eye. After about six month of injections behind and inside the eye nothing improved. Finally the descision was taken to numb the optict nerve with a alcohol injection behind the eye. This led to nearly total vision lost but the pain was gone. I thought that this was the last of my problems but i was sadly mistaken.
There were no more symtoms for about two years and every thing was fine.
Early in 1993 a new problem arose. It started with a constant pain in the right side of my face and lower jaw. After seeing a doctor i was referred to a neurolegist and was diagosed with right side trigeminal neralgia, in other words a non specific pain in the facial nerves. They send me to a pain specialist in Cape town to see if this will help. Eventually they did a steroid injection into the nerve at the point where the nerve exit the brian. This did not help. Eventually i was given heavy drugs to take daily to help cope with the pain. After about three to four months this pain symtoms disapeared totally and my life was back to normal. The only effects left over was a numbness in the right side of the face and tung.
Four months later i started having panic attacks and was hyperventilating with out any reason. This landed me up at psychologist.I was put on some anti depressant and this seem to help. There was no mental issues that caused these attacks. Eventually this also dissapeared with time and i was on my way to complete health again. Ha-Ha!!
Two months later while driving home one night and noticed that my left eye was giving problems and suddenly my vision totally drop. I landed up in the emergency room and was refered to a huge medical hospital. The next morning i had about 20% vision left.They ran some test including a visual impulse test (VEP). This shown a great delay in the nerve timing to my brian and was put onto a steriod drip for five days. The first MRI scanners was being tested at that stage but was not yet fully in operation at that stage.
After some further sensory tested i was diagnosed with Multiple Sclerosis. After about three weeks in hospital my vision improved slightly but not enough to be able to work again and there for i was placed on permanent disability. My panic attacks also returned for no obvious reason. In the next year i slowly regained the sight in my left eye and was able to work part time. Eventualy after about three years i returned to work permanantly.
Apart from a slight relapse in vision late in 1998 wich was treated with a steriod drip for three days. I was able to lead a normal life again.
Late in 2006 i noticed that i was not feeling myself and described it to being over work. I changed jobs in Jan 2007 but i was still not feeling well. Early in Jan i started having severe spasm im my chest and had several visits to ER. I was given some injection and sent home with. They diagnised me with non specific panic attacks. The pains in the chest area did not improve att all. I went to a specialist who did diagnosed me with a ulcer in the stomach and acid burn damaged to the throat.
I knew that i have got a acid problem for years caused by incorrect diet. I was not convinced that this was the problem that i am having trouble breathing when i have chest pains. I also asked all the doctors if the MS is not the cause of my problems and they said they dont think so. After some more visits to the ER the problems just got worse. My right hand started losing feeling and had a tremble at times.
The they tested me for a possible stroke and heart problems. This was ruled out. I also developed a slight limp when i walked especially after a long day at work. I also had the neralgia in my eyes and right side of the face was very painfull. Eventually my left eye started losing vision again. I was again sent to a neuroligist and was sent for a MRI scan wich indicated that there where white spots of flare-ups in the brain and the spine. Further test also indicated a loss of sensation and visual response to the brain.
Finally i was diagnised with relapsing MS and was recieving the right treatment for the disease. But it came at a price. My right side of my body is numb and i have lost about 70% of my vision.I have no proper control over the right side of my body. The chest pains is associated with spasm in the mid-rif and short rib muscles this i now know to be the "Ms Hug". I am currently again disabled and eventually decided that i will have to stop work in 2009.
I there for decided to start a web page to help other people with the same problems and hope that i could built up a world wide data base of MS sufferers
I hope that my story will help others
Brian Groenenstein
Sea Anemone Toxin Halts Experimental Multiple Sclerosis; Findings May Lead To New Treatments For DiseaseUniversity of California
-IrvingNovember 21, 2001
Irvine, Calif. -- Sea anemones use venom to stun their prey, but one component of that venom halts--and may reverse--the paralysis seen in an experimental form of multiple sclerosis, according to a study by UC Irvine's College of Medicine and the University of Marseilles, France.
If the findings conducted on rats prove effective in humans, they could result in a new class of drug treatments for multiple sclerosis, one of the most common diseases of the nervous system, known for its devastating and progressive loss of sensation and function. The study appears in the Nov. 20 issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Christine Beeton and Heike Wulff, physiology and biophysics researchers, and their colleagues found that a component of venom called ShK from the Caribbean sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus blocks ion channels located in white blood cells that had been activated to cause an experimental form of multiple sclerosis called EAE. By blocking the channels on these activated cells, ShK prevented the activated cells from attacking the nervous system and causing paralysis.
The white blood cells, also known as T cells, that were activated to cause experimental MS, contained unusually high numbers of a particular ion channel. Usually, such inappropriately activated cells are destroyed by the body's thymus gland, which regulates production of immune cells. But in many cases of multiple sclerosis, these disease-causing cells slip through and can attack nerve cells. Ion channels are found on the surface of cells and play crucial roles in communicating between cells and regulating cellular behavior.
"This experimental form of multiple sclerosis is caused by T cells with high numbers of unique ion channels that may trigger the T cells into attacking neurons and eventually cause paralysis and death," said Beeton. "Our experiments show that we can block these channels, and only these channels, and protect neurons from damage. If these findings hold after testing in other animals and people, they may result in an effective treatment for MS."
Multiple sclerosis is a debilitating disease in which T cells and other components of the immune system literally attack their own nervous system, resulting in tremors, burning, sensory deprivation, paralysis and eventually death. Immune cells cause the disease by stripping away a protective sheath called myelin that normally surrounds neurons and helps them transmit crucial nerve signals.
The disease can strike the young and elderly and can take years to develop. The National Multiple Sclerosis Society estimates that between 250,000 and 350,000 people in the United States suffer from multiple sclerosis. There is no known cure, though certain treatments can address symptoms and even slow the disease's course if detected early.
ShK blocked the ion channels and stopped the activated cells' destructive activity. By continuously blocking these T cell channels with ShK, the researchers found they could reverse the experimental disease, even after the initial onset of symptoms. In some rats that were showing signs of paralysis, their function was nearly fully restored.
ShK is the most potent inhibitor known for these channels on the activated T cells, but its short life span in the bloodstream reduces its effectiveness as a therapeutic drug.
"ShK may not last long enough to prevent or treat disease on a long-term basis," Wulff said. "But it appears to match the biochemical structure of the channel well enough to block it and change the T cells' responses. Our group is searching for chemically similar substances that last longer in the body."
"This research shows that we may be able to effectively treat the disease while preserving the immune system by targeting a specific cellular ion channel," Beeton said. "Still, researchers will have to find out what dose works best to treat MS, whether it can work on other illnesses and at what stage of a disease treatment should begin."
The researchers' work was supported by the National Multiple Sclerosis Society, the French Association pour la Recherche sur La Sclérose en Plaques, Fondation pour la Recherche Medicale and the U.S. National Institutes of Health.
Irvine, Calif. -- Sea anemones use venom to stun their prey, but one component of that venom halts--and may reverse--the paralysis seen in an experimental form of multiple sclerosis, according to a study by UC Irvine's College of Medicine and the University of Marseilles, France.
If the findings conducted on rats prove effective in humans, they could result in a new class of drug treatments for multiple sclerosis, one of the most common diseases of the nervous system, known for its devastating and progressive loss of sensation and function. The study appears in the Nov. 20 issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Christine Beeton and Heike Wulff, physiology and biophysics researchers, and their colleagues found that a component of venom called ShK from the Caribbean sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus blocks ion channels located in white blood cells that had been activated to cause an experimental form of multiple sclerosis called EAE. By blocking the channels on these activated cells, ShK prevented the activated cells from attacking the nervous system and causing paralysis.
The white blood cells, also known as T cells, that were activated to cause experimental MS, contained unusually high numbers of a particular ion channel. Usually, such inappropriately activated cells are destroyed by the body's thymus gland, which regulates production of immune cells. But in many cases of multiple sclerosis, these disease-causing cells slip through and can attack nerve cells. Ion channels are found on the surface of cells and play crucial roles in communicating between cells and regulating cellular behavior.
"This experimental form of multiple sclerosis is caused by T cells with high numbers of unique ion channels that may trigger the T cells into attacking neurons and eventually cause paralysis and death," said Beeton. "Our experiments show that we can block these channels, and only these channels, and protect neurons from damage. If these findings hold after testing in other animals and people, they may result in an effective treatment for MS."
Multiple sclerosis is a debilitating disease in which T cells and other components of the immune system literally attack their own nervous system, resulting in tremors, burning, sensory deprivation, paralysis and eventually death. Immune cells cause the disease by stripping away a protective sheath called myelin that normally surrounds neurons and helps them transmit crucial nerve signals.
The disease can strike the young and elderly and can take years to develop. The National Multiple Sclerosis Society estimates that between 250,000 and 350,000 people in the United States suffer from multiple sclerosis. There is no known cure, though certain treatments can address symptoms and even slow the disease's course if detected early.
ShK blocked the ion channels and stopped the activated cells' destructive activity. By continuously blocking these T cell channels with ShK, the researchers found they could reverse the experimental disease, even after the initial onset of symptoms. In some rats that were showing signs of paralysis, their function was nearly fully restored.
ShK is the most potent inhibitor known for these channels on the activated T cells, but its short life span in the bloodstream reduces its effectiveness as a therapeutic drug.
"ShK may not last long enough to prevent or treat disease on a long-term basis," Wulff said. "But it appears to match the biochemical structure of the channel well enough to block it and change the T cells' responses. Our group is searching for chemically similar substances that last longer in the body."
"This research shows that we may be able to effectively treat the disease while preserving the immune system by targeting a specific cellular ion channel," Beeton said. "Still, researchers will have to find out what dose works best to treat MS, whether it can work on other illnesses and at what stage of a disease treatment should begin."
The researchers' work was supported by the National Multiple Sclerosis Society, the French Association pour la Recherche sur La Sclérose en Plaques, Fondation pour la Recherche Medicale and the U.S. National Institutes of Health.
Stem Cell Tourism and Multiple Sclerosis
Friday March 20, 2009There are countries which have developed stem cells therapies that are not approved in other countries. Countries like the UK and the US have very rigid standards for new treatments. Other countries may get new treatments "online" sooner because they require much less proof.Because of these country-by-country differences in approval standards, a new tourism industry has been created called "stem cell tourism." There are even websites offering "miracle" treatments for multiple sclerosis and other illnesses through the use of stem cell therapy. Unfortunately, these treatments are expensive and, often, not very effective. Think about it, if a treatment were as promising as the advertisement, it would at least be in clinical trials in the UK or the US. If you can't find the treatment in the clinical trials database (try clinicaltrials.gov) then there probably isn't very much promise in it. Don't get fooled by the ads and the hype. Do your homework and save your money.
Thomas Ichim says:
this may be of interest Glia. 2009 Feb 3. [Epub ahead of print] LinksHuman bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells induce Th2-polarized immune response and promote endogenous repair in animal models of multiple sclerosis.Bai L, Lennon DP, Eaton V, Maier K, Caplan AI, Miller SD, Miller RH.Case Western Reserve University, Centers for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Translational Neuroscience, Department of Neurosciences, Case School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio.
Cell-based therapies are attractive approaches to promote myelin repair. Recent studies demonstrated a reduction in disease burden in mice with experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) treated with mouse mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Here, we demonstrated human bone marrow-derived MSCs (BM-hMSCs) promote functional recovery in both chronic and relapsing-remitting models of mouse EAE, traced their migration into the injured CNS and assayed their ability to modulate disease progression and the host immune response. Injected BM-hMSCs accumulated in the CNS, reduced the extent of damage and increased oligodendrocyte lineage cells in lesion areas. The increase in oligodendrocytes in lesions may reflect BM-hMSC-induced changes in neural fate determination, since neurospheres from treated animals gave rise to more oligodendrocytes and less astrocytes than nontreated neurospheres. Host immune responses were also influenced by BM-hMSCs. Inflammatory T-cells including interferon gamma producing Th1 cells and IL-17 producing Th17 inflammatory cells and their associated cytokines were reduced along with concomitant increases in IL-4 producing Th2 cells and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Together, these data suggest that the BM-hMSCs represent a viable option for therapeutic approaches. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Cell-based therapies are attractive approaches to promote myelin repair. Recent studies demonstrated a reduction in disease burden in mice with experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) treated with mouse mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Here, we demonstrated human bone marrow-derived MSCs (BM-hMSCs) promote functional recovery in both chronic and relapsing-remitting models of mouse EAE, traced their migration into the injured CNS and assayed their ability to modulate disease progression and the host immune response. Injected BM-hMSCs accumulated in the CNS, reduced the extent of damage and increased oligodendrocyte lineage cells in lesion areas. The increase in oligodendrocytes in lesions may reflect BM-hMSC-induced changes in neural fate determination, since neurospheres from treated animals gave rise to more oligodendrocytes and less astrocytes than nontreated neurospheres. Host immune responses were also influenced by BM-hMSCs. Inflammatory T-cells including interferon gamma producing Th1 cells and IL-17 producing Th17 inflammatory cells and their associated cytokines were reduced along with concomitant increases in IL-4 producing Th2 cells and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Together, these data suggest that the BM-hMSCs represent a viable option for therapeutic approaches. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Stem Cell Tourism and Multiple Sclerosis
Friday March 20, 2009There are countries which have developed stem cells therapies that are not approved in other countries. Countries like the UK and the US have very rigid standards for new treatments. Other countries may get new treatments "online" sooner because they require much less proof.Because of these country-by-country differences in approval standards, a new tourism industry has been created called "stem cell tourism." There are even websites offering "miracle" treatments for multiple sclerosis and other illnesses through the use of stem cell therapy. Unfortunately, these treatments are expensive and, often, not very effective. Think about it, if a treatment were as promising as the advertisement, it would at least be in clinical trials in the UK or the US. If you can't find the treatment in the clinical trials database (try clinicaltrials.gov) then there probably isn't very much promise in it.
Bali Introduction
Bali is one of the most well known destinations in the entire world. The island itself is overflowing with beautiful landscapes, mysterious volcanoes, tropical jungles, lush rice farm terrace and yes…the most stunning beaches anywhere. Bali is absolutely bustling with activities during the day including water sports activities, golfing, hiking and trekking and sightseeing. However, after the sun sets, Bali turns the heat up and becomes an ultra-hip nightspot with stylish and trendy bars and clubs sprinkled throughout the island. The island is also celebrated for its many famous forms of artworks, its splendid architecture that has been copied world-wide and the intricately designed Hindu temples, which can been found in abundance throughout the island. A trip to Bali without having a rejuvenating Balinese massage is completely unheard of. Here, the ancient art of massage and alternative therapies have been perfected over many generations leaving visitors utterly invigorated
Growth
International tourism receipts in 2005Petronas Twin Towers, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) forecasts that international tourism will continue growing at the average annual rate of 4 %. By 2020 Europe will remain the most popular destination, but its share will drop from 60% in 1995 to 46%. Long-haul will grow slightly faster than intraregional travel and by 2020 its share will increase from 18% in 1995 to 24%.With the advent of e-commerce, tourism products have become one of the most traded items on the internet.Tourism products and services have been made available through intermediaries, although tourism providers (hotels, airlines, etc.) can sell their services directly. This has put pressure on intermediaries from both on-line and traditional shops.
It has been suggested there is a strong correlation between Tourism expenditure per capita and the degree to which countries play in the global context. Not only as a result of the important economic contribution of the tourism industry, but also as an indicator of the degree of confidence with which global citizens leverage the resources of the globe for the benefit of their local economies. This is why any projections of growth in tourism may serve as an indication of the relative influence that each country will exercise in the future.
Space tourism is expected to "take off" in the first quarter of the 21st century, although compared with traditional destinations the number of tourists in orbit will remain low until technologies such as a space elevator make space travel cheap.Technological improvement is likely to make possible air-ship hotels, based either on solar-powered airplanes or large dirigibles.Underwater hotels, such as Hydropolis, expected to open in Dubai in 2009, will be built. On the ocean, tourists will be welcomed by ever larger cruise ships and perhaps floating cities.
The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) forecasts that international tourism will continue growing at the average annual rate of 4 %. By 2020 Europe will remain the most popular destination, but its share will drop from 60% in 1995 to 46%. Long-haul will grow slightly faster than intraregional travel and by 2020 its share will increase from 18% in 1995 to 24%.With the advent of e-commerce, tourism products have become one of the most traded items on the internet.Tourism products and services have been made available through intermediaries, although tourism providers (hotels, airlines, etc.) can sell their services directly. This has put pressure on intermediaries from both on-line and traditional shops.
It has been suggested there is a strong correlation between Tourism expenditure per capita and the degree to which countries play in the global context. Not only as a result of the important economic contribution of the tourism industry, but also as an indicator of the degree of confidence with which global citizens leverage the resources of the globe for the benefit of their local economies. This is why any projections of growth in tourism may serve as an indication of the relative influence that each country will exercise in the future.
Space tourism is expected to "take off" in the first quarter of the 21st century, although compared with traditional destinations the number of tourists in orbit will remain low until technologies such as a space elevator make space travel cheap.Technological improvement is likely to make possible air-ship hotels, based either on solar-powered airplanes or large dirigibles.Underwater hotels, such as Hydropolis, expected to open in Dubai in 2009, will be built. On the ocean, tourists will be welcomed by ever larger cruise ships and perhaps floating cities.
Creative tourism
Creative tourism has existed as a form of cultural tourism, since the early beginnings of tourism itself. Its European roots date back to the time of the Grand Tour, which saw the sons of aristocratic families traveling for the purpose of mostly interactive, educational experiences. More recently, creative tourism has been given its own name by Crispin Raymond and Greg Richards[citation needed], who as members of the Association for Tourism and Leisure Education (ATLAS), have directed a number of projects for the European Commission, including cultural and crafts tourism, known as sustainable tourism. They have defined "creative tourism" as tourism related to the active participation of travelers in the culture of the host community, through interactive workshops and informal learning experiences.Meanwhile, the concept of creative tourism has been picked up by high-profile organizations such as UNESCO, who through the Creative Cities Network, have endorsed creative tourism as an engaged, authentic experience that promotes an active understanding of the specific cultural features of a place.More recently, creative tourism has gained popularity as a form of cultural tourism, drawing on active participation by travelers in the culture of the host communities they visit. Several countries offer examples of this type of tourism development, including the United Kingdom, the Bahamas, Jamaica, Spain, Italy and New Zealand.Doing business in Japan by Alex Storm
If you want to do business in Japan, you need to be scrupulously aware of cultural differences, the importance of status and expected behaviour. By brushing aside any traditional customs, you are almost assured of not getting what you want. The etiquette surrounding business deals in Japan has been built up over generations, and at the very least you need to understand some of these.
The first thing you need to know is that meetings are always bound by formality. When you meet for the first time, you are expected to introduce yourself using your full name, your company name and the title you hold in the company. You will be introduced to your counterparts in descending order of importance. Take careful note.
Japanese people bow when they are introduced to show mutual respect. As a foreign traveler you will not be expected to bow, but may notice that Japanese business people will nod their head while shaking your hand. This nod is a modification for Westerners to the bow of respect. Most top Japanese businessmen will be well aware of Western customs, but still expect symbolic gestures from you.
You should always have a business card, preferably a bilingual one with Japanese script on the one side of the card. Make sure this is correctly translated to avoid any embarrassment. A business card is always presented with both hands. When you receive a card, you are expected to study it, or at least take note of it. To simply put it into your pocket will be seen as rude and undermining the importance of your host.
Your dress is also vitally important. However hot it may be during summer in Tokyo, men should always wear a conservative suit and tie. Woman should also be dressed in conservative tailored clothing. Whenever you are in doubt of what dress would be most suitable for an event, opt for a conservative outfit and you won’t go wrong.
The exchange of gifts is an accepted custom in Japan and is not seen as a bribe or being over-friendly as it might be in the west. The gifts do not have to be expensive, especially if this is a first meeting. The safest gift would be a modest item with a company, wrapped respectably. It is important that the gift does not include a set of 4 items, as the number 4 in Japanese sounds like the word for 'death'.
Throughout your discussions, you have to remember that Japanese businessmen do their deals on the basis of relationships and not only the information presented at a meeting. Establishing a mutually respectful relationship is the best thing you can do to ensure future business. Try not to ask a question that is phrased negatively, avoid looking into your counterparts eyes and do not laugh, as this indicates embarrassment. A smile is acceptable.
To be be invited to socialise after hours is an honour and should not be turned down. Although your host will pay, make at least a meek attempt to pick up the bill. He won't let you, but even your insincere attempt to pick up the tab will have looked good. Most Japanese like to drink alcohol, so make a point of joining in, even if you don’t feel like it. Don’t despair if a business meeting stretches longer than expected, the more time your Japanese colleague is willing to spend with you, the better the chances of any business success.
Recent developments
There has been an upmarket trend in the tourism over the last few decades, especially in Europe, where international travel for short breaks is common.Tourists have higher levels of disposable income and greater leisure time and they are also better-educated and have more sophisticated tastes.There is now a demand for a better quality products, which has resulted in a fragmenting of the mass market for beach vacations; people want more specialised versions, such as Club 18-30, quieter resorts, family-oriented holidays or niche market-targeted destination hotels.The developments in technology and transport infrastructure, such as jumbo jets, low-cost airlines and more accessible airports have made many types of tourism more affordable. WHO estimates that up to 500,000 people are on planes at any time. There have also been changes in lifestyle, such as retiree-age people who sustain year round tourism. This is facilitated by internet sales of tourism products. Some sites have now started to offer dynamic packaging, in which an inclusive price is quoted for a tailor-made package requested by the customer upon impulse.
There have been a few setbacks in tourism, such as the September 11 attacks and terrorist threats to tourist destinations, such as in Bali and several European cities. Also, on December 26, 2004, a tsunami, caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, hit the Asian countries on the Indian Ocean, including the Maldives. Thousands of lives were lost and many tourists died. This, together with the vast clean-up operation in place, has stopped or severely hampered tourism to the area.
The terms tourism and travel are sometimes used interchangeably. In this context, travel has a similar definition to tourism, but implies a more purposeful journey. The terms tourism and tourist are sometimes used pejoratively, to imply a shallow interest in the cultures or locations visited by tourists
Mass tourism
Mass tourism could only have developed with the improvements in technology, allowing the transport of large numbers of people in a short space of time to places of leisure interest, so that greater numbers of people began to enjoy the benefits of leisure time.
In the United States, the first great seaside resort, in the European style, was Atlantic City, New Jersey and Long Island, New York.
In continental Europe, early resorts included: Ostend, popularized by the people of Brussels; Boulogne-sur-Mer (Pas-de-Calais) and Deauville (Calvados) for the Parisians; and Heiligendamm, founded in 1797, as the first seaside resort at the Baltic Sea.
Toursim Definition
Hunziker and Krapf, in 1941, defined tourism as people who travel "the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-residents, insofar as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected with any earning activity."In 1976, the Tourism Society of England's definition was: "Tourism is the temporary, short-term movement of people to destination outside the places where they normally live and work and their activities during the stay at each destination. It includes movements for all purposes." In 1981, the International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism defined tourism in terms of particular activities selected by choice and undertaken outside the home.
The United Nations classified three forms of tourism in 1994, in its "Recommendations on Tourism Statistics: Domestic tourism", which involves residents of the given country traveling only within this country; Inbound tourism, involving non-residents traveling in the given country; and Outbound tourism, involving residents traveling in another country.The UN also derived different categories of tourism by combining the three basic forms of tourism: Internal tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and inbound tourism; National tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and outbound tourism; and International tourism, which consists of inbound tourism and outbound tourism. Intrabound tourism is a term coined by the Korea Tourism Organization and widely accepted in Korea. Intrabound tourism differs from domestic tourism in that the former encompasses policymaking and implementation of national tourism policies.
Recently, the tourism industry has shifted from the promotion of inbound tourism to the promotion of intrabound tourism, because many countries are experiencing tough competition for inbound tourists. Some national policymakers have shifted their priority to the promotion of intrabound tourism to contribute to the local economy. Examples of such campaigns include: "See America" in Singapore" in Singapore; "100% Pure New Zealand" in New Zealand; Croatia - "The Mediterranean As It Once Was"; "Amazing Thailand" in Thailand; "Incredible India" in India; and "The Hidden Charm" in Vietnam.
The United Nations classified three forms of tourism in 1994, in its "Recommendations on Tourism Statistics: Domestic tourism", which involves residents of the given country traveling only within this country; Inbound tourism, involving non-residents traveling in the given country; and Outbound tourism, involving residents traveling in another country.The UN also derived different categories of tourism by combining the three basic forms of tourism: Internal tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and inbound tourism; National tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and outbound tourism; and International tourism, which consists of inbound tourism and outbound tourism. Intrabound tourism is a term coined by the Korea Tourism Organization and widely accepted in Korea. Intrabound tourism differs from domestic tourism in that the former encompasses policymaking and implementation of national tourism policies.
Recently, the tourism industry has shifted from the promotion of inbound tourism to the promotion of intrabound tourism, because many countries are experiencing tough competition for inbound tourists. Some national policymakers have shifted their priority to the promotion of intrabound tourism to contribute to the local economy. Examples of such campaigns include: "See America" in Singapore" in Singapore; "100% Pure New Zealand" in New Zealand; Croatia - "The Mediterranean As It Once Was"; "Amazing Thailand" in Thailand; "Incredible India" in India; and "The Hidden Charm" in Vietnam.
Insurance patents
Further information: Insurance patent
New assurance products can now be protected from copying with a business method patent in the United States.
A recent example of a new insurance product that is patented is Usage Based auto insurance. Early versions were independently invented and patented by a major U.S. auto insurance company, Progressive Auto Insurance (U.S. Patent 5,797,134) and a Spanish independent inventor, Salvador Minguijon Perez (EP patent 0700009).
Many independent inventors are in favor of patenting new insurance products since it gives them protection from big companies when they bring their new insurance products to market. Independent inventors account for 70% of the new U.S. patent applications in this area.
Many insurance executives are opposed to patenting insurance products because it creates a new risk for them. The Hartford insurance company, for example, recently had to pay $80 million to an independent inventor, Bancorp Services, in order to settle a patent infringement and theft of trade secret lawsuit for a type of corporate owned life insurance product invented and patented by Bancorp.
There are currently about 150 new patent applications on insurance inventions filed per year in the United States. The rate at which patents have issued has steadily risen from 15 in 2002 to 44 in 2006.
Inventors can now have their insurance U.S. patent applications reviewed by the public in the Peer to Patent program.[19] The first insurance patent application to be posted was US2009005522 “Risk assessment company”. It was posted on March 6, 2009. This patent application describes a method for increasing the ease of changing insurance companies.
New assurance products can now be protected from copying with a business method patent in the United States.
A recent example of a new insurance product that is patented is Usage Based auto insurance. Early versions were independently invented and patented by a major U.S. auto insurance company, Progressive Auto Insurance (U.S. Patent 5,797,134) and a Spanish independent inventor, Salvador Minguijon Perez (EP patent 0700009).
Many independent inventors are in favor of patenting new insurance products since it gives them protection from big companies when they bring their new insurance products to market. Independent inventors account for 70% of the new U.S. patent applications in this area.
Many insurance executives are opposed to patenting insurance products because it creates a new risk for them. The Hartford insurance company, for example, recently had to pay $80 million to an independent inventor, Bancorp Services, in order to settle a patent infringement and theft of trade secret lawsuit for a type of corporate owned life insurance product invented and patented by Bancorp.
There are currently about 150 new patent applications on insurance inventions filed per year in the United States. The rate at which patents have issued has steadily risen from 15 in 2002 to 44 in 2006.
Inventors can now have their insurance U.S. patent applications reviewed by the public in the Peer to Patent program.[19] The first insurance patent application to be posted was US2009005522 “Risk assessment company”. It was posted on March 6, 2009. This patent application describes a method for increasing the ease of changing insurance companies.
Complexity of insurance policy contracts
Insurance policies can be complex and some policyholders may not understand all the fees and coverages included in a policy. As a result, people may buy policies on unfavorable terms. In response to these issues, many countries have enacted detailed statutory and regulatory regimes governing every aspect of the insurance business, including minimum standards for policies and the ways in which they may be advertised and sold.
For example, most insurance policies in the English language today have been carefully drafted in plain English; the industry learned the hard way that many courts will not enforce policies against insureds when the judges themselves cannot understand what the policies are saying.
Many institutional insurance purchasers buy insurance through an insurance broker. While on the surface it appears the broker represents the buyer (not the insurance company), and typically counsels the buyer on appropriate coverage and policy limitations, it should be noted that in the vast majority of cases a broker's compensation comes in the form of a commission as a percentage of the insurance premium, creating a conflict of interest in that the broker's financial interest is tilted towards encouraging an insured to purchase more insurance than might be necessary at a higher price. A broker generally holds contracts with many insurers, thereby allowing the broker to "shop" the market for the best rates and coverage possible.
Insurance may also be purchased through an agent. Unlike a broker, who represents the policyholder, an agent represents the insurance company from whom the policyholder buys. An agent can represent more than one company.
An independent insurance consultant advises insureds on a fee-for-service retainer, similar to an attorney, and thus offers completely independent advice, free of the financial conflict of interest of brokers and/or agents. However, such a consultant must still work through brokers and/or agents in order to secure coverage for their clients.
[edit] Redlining
For example, most insurance policies in the English language today have been carefully drafted in plain English; the industry learned the hard way that many courts will not enforce policies against insureds when the judges themselves cannot understand what the policies are saying.
Many institutional insurance purchasers buy insurance through an insurance broker. While on the surface it appears the broker represents the buyer (not the insurance company), and typically counsels the buyer on appropriate coverage and policy limitations, it should be noted that in the vast majority of cases a broker's compensation comes in the form of a commission as a percentage of the insurance premium, creating a conflict of interest in that the broker's financial interest is tilted towards encouraging an insured to purchase more insurance than might be necessary at a higher price. A broker generally holds contracts with many insurers, thereby allowing the broker to "shop" the market for the best rates and coverage possible.
Insurance may also be purchased through an agent. Unlike a broker, who represents the policyholder, an agent represents the insurance company from whom the policyholder buys. An agent can represent more than one company.
An independent insurance consultant advises insureds on a fee-for-service retainer, similar to an attorney, and thus offers completely independent advice, free of the financial conflict of interest of brokers and/or agents. However, such a consultant must still work through brokers and/or agents in order to secure coverage for their clients.
[edit] Redlining
Closed community self-insurance
Some communities prefer to create virtual insurance amongst themselves by other means than contractual risk transfer, which assigns explicit numerical values to risk. A number of religious groups, including the Amish and some Muslim groups, depend on support provided by their communities when disasters strike. The risk presented by any given person is assumed collectively by the community who all bear the cost of rebuilding lost property and supporting people whose needs are suddenly greater after a loss of some kind. In supportive communities where others can be trusted to follow community leaders, this tacit form of insurance can work. In this manner the community can even out the extreme differences in insurability that exist among its members. Some further justification is also provided by invoking the moral hazard of explicit insurance contracts.
In the United Kingdom, The Crown (which, for practical purposes, meant the Civil service) did not insure property such as government buildings. If a government building was damaged, the cost of repair would be met from public funds because, in the long run, this was cheaper than paying insurance premiums. Since many UK government buildings have been sold to property companies, and rented back, this arrangement is now less common and may have disappeared altogether
In the United Kingdom, The Crown (which, for practical purposes, meant the Civil service) did not insure property such as government buildings. If a government building was damaged, the cost of repair would be met from public funds because, in the long run, this was cheaper than paying insurance premiums. Since many UK government buildings have been sold to property companies, and rented back, this arrangement is now less common and may have disappeared altogether
History of insurance
In some sense we can say that insurance appears simultaneously with the appearance of human society. We know of two types of economies in human societies: money economies (with markets, money, financial instruments and so on) and non-money or natural economies (without money, markets, financial instruments and so on). The second type is a more ancient form than the first. In such an economy and community, we can see insurance in the form of people helping each other. For example, if a house burns down, the members of the community help build a new one. Should the same thing happen to one's neighbour, the other neighbours must help. Otherwise, neighbours will not receive help in the future. This type of insurance has survived to the present day in some countries where modern money economy with its financial instruments is not widespread (for example countries in the territory of the former Soviet Union).Turning to insurance in the modern sense (i.e., insurance in a modern money economy, in which insurance is part of the financial sphere), early methods of transferring or distributing risk were practised by Chinese and Babylonian traders as long ago as the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, respectively. Chinese merchants travelling treacherous river rapids would redistribute their wares across many vessels to limit the loss due to any single vessel's capsizing. The Babylonians developed a system which was recorded in the famous Code of Hammurabi, c. 1750 BC, and practised by early Mediterranean sailing merchants. If a merchant received a loan to fund his shipment, he would pay the lender an additional sum in exchange for the lender's guarantee to cancel the loan should the shipment be stolen or lost at sea.
Achaemenian monarchs of Ancient Persia were the first to insure their people and made it official by registering the insuring process in governmental notary offices. The insurance tradition was performed each year in Norouz (beginning of the Iranian New Year); the heads of different ethnic groups as well as others willing to take part, presented gifts to the monarch. The most important gift was presented during a special ceremony. When a gift was worth more than 10,000 Derrik (Achaemenian gold coin) the issue was registered in a special office. This was advantageous to those who presented such special gifts. For others, the presents were fairly assessed by the confidants of the court. Then the assessment was registered in special offices.
The purpose of registering was that whenever the person who presented the gift registered by the court was in trouble, the monarch and the court would help him. Jahez, a historian and writer, writes in one of his books on ancient Iran: "[W]henever the owner of the present is in trouble or wants to construct a building, set up a feast, have his children married, etc. the one in charge of this in the court would check the registration. If the registered amount exceeded 10,000 Derrik, he or she would receive an amount of twice as much."
A thousand years later, the inhabitants of Rhodes invented the concept of the 'general average'. Merchants whose goods were being shipped together would pay a proportionally divided premium which would be used to reimburse any merchant whose goods were jettisoned during storm or sinkage.
The Greeks and Romans introduced the origins of health and life insurance c. 600 AD when they organized guilds called "benevolent societies" which cared for the families and paid funeral expenses of members upon death. Guilds in the Middle Ages served a similar purpose. The Talmud deals with several aspects of insuring goods. Before insurance was established in the late 17th century, "friendly societies" existed in England, in which people donated amounts of money to a general sum that could be used for emergencies.
Separate insurance contracts (i.e., insurance policies not bundled with loans or other kinds of contracts) were invented in Genoa in the 14th century, as were insurance pools backed by pledges of landed estates. These new insurance contracts allowed insurance to be separated from investment, a separation of roles that first proved useful in marine insurance. Insurance became far more sophisticated in post-Renaissance Europe, and specialized varieties developed.
Some forms of insurance had developed in London by the early decades of the seventeenth century. For example, the will of the English colonist Robert Hayman mentions two "policies of insurance" taken out with the diocesan Chancellor of London, Arthur Duck. Of the value of £100 each, one relates to the safe arrival of Hayman's ship in Guyana and the other is in regard to "one hundred pounds assured by the said Doctor Arthur Ducke on my life". Hayman's will was signed and sealed on 17 November 1628 but not proved until 1633.Toward the end of the seventeenth century, London's growing importance as a centre for trade increased demand for marine insurance. In the late 1680s, Edward Lloyd opened a coffee house that became a popular haunt of ship owners, merchants, and ships’ captains, and thereby a reliable source of the latest shipping news. It became the meeting place for parties wishing to insure cargoes and ships, and those willing to underwrite such ventures. Today, Lloyd's of London remains the leading market (note that it is not an insurance company) for marine and other specialist types of insurance, but it works rather differently than the more familiar kinds of insurance.
Insurance as we know it today can be traced to the Great Fire of London, which in 1666 devoured 13,200 houses. In the aftermath of this disaster, Nicholas Barbon opened an office to insure buildings. In 1680, he established England's first fire insurance company, "The Fire Office," to insure brick and frame homes.
The first insurance company in the United States underwrote fire insurance and was formed in Charles Town (modern-day Charleston), South Carolina, in 1732. Benjamin Franklin helped to popularize and make standard the practice of insurance, particularly against fire in the form of perpetual insurance. In 1752, he founded the Philadelphia Contributionship for the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire. Franklin's company was the first to make contributions toward fire prevention. Not only did his company warn against certain fire hazards, it refused to insure certain buildings where the risk of fire was too great, such as all wooden houses. In the United States, regulation of the insurance industry is highly Balkanized, with primary responsibility assumed by individual state insurance departments. Whereas insurance markets have become centralized nationally and internationally, state insurance commissioners operate individually, though at times in concert through a national insurance commissioners' organization. In recent years, some have called for a dual state and federal regulatory system (commonly referred to as the Optional federal charter (OFC)) for insurance similar to that which oversees state banks and national banks.
CABO SAN LUCAS
(CNN) -- Hurricane Jimena quickly weakened late Tuesday as the storm closed on the Mexican peninsula of Baja California and the resort town of Cabo San Lucas.
A Category 4 storm in the afternoon, Jimena had slipped to Category 2 status before midnight.
The hurricane's maximum wind speed dropped from 135 mph to 110 mph (175 km/hr) over a 10-hour period, according to the National Hurricane Center's 11 p.m. PT (2 a.m. ET Wednesday) update.
"Gradual weakening is expected prior to landfall, with a more rapid weakening thereafter," the center said. Squalls from the storm were hitting the southern peninsula late Tuesday.
Jimena was moving toward the north-northwest near 13 mph (20 km/hr) and was centered about 95 miles (155 km) west-southwest of La Paz and about 110 miles (175 km) south-southeast of Cabo San Lazaro. See the storm's projected path »
"On the forecast track, the core of Jimena will be near or over the southern portion of the Baja California peninsula Wednesday, and be near or over the central Baja California peninsula Wednesday night and Thursday," forecasters said.
Mexico's government extended a hurricane warning for most of the southern half of the Baja peninsula -- from Punta Abreojos on the peninsula's west coast to Mulege on its east coast, according to the hurricane center.CABO SAN LUCAS, Mexico (CNN) -- Hurricane Jimena quickly weakened late Tuesday as the storm closed on the Mexican peninsula of Baja California and the resort town of Cabo San Lucas.
.
A Category 4 storm in the afternoon, Jimena had slipped to Category 2 status before midnight.
The hurricane's maximum wind speed dropped from 135 mph to 110 mph (175 km/hr) over a 10-hour period, according to the National Hurricane Center's 11 p.m. PT (2 a.m. ET Wednesday) update.
"Gradual weakening is expected prior to landfall, with a more rapid weakening thereafter," the center said. Squalls from the storm were hitting the southern peninsula late Tuesday.
Jimena was moving toward the north-northwest near 13 mph (20 km/hr) and was centered about 95 miles (155 km) west-southwest of La Paz and about 110 miles (175 km) south-southeast of Cabo San Lazaro. See the storm's projected path »
"On the forecast track, the core of Jimena will be near or over the southern portion of the Baja California peninsula Wednesday, and be near or over the central Baja California peninsula Wednesday night and Thursday," forecasters said.
Mexico's government extended a hurricane warning for most of the southern half of the Baja peninsula -- from Punta Abreojos on the peninsula's west coast to Mulege on its east coast, according to the hurricane center.CABO SAN LUCAS, Mexico (CNN) -- Hurricane Jimena quickly weakened late Tuesday as the storm closed on the Mexican peninsula of Baja California and the resort town of Cabo San Lucas.
.
Health Savings Accounts
With the cost of health insurance premiums rising, small businesses are finding it hard to provide health care coverage. An HSA offers a new viable alternative. Health Savings Accounts (HSA) is a special type of savings account that allows employees to contribute part of your income tax-free and use it in the future for medical, long term care, and/or retirement expenses. You can only get an HSA if you also have qualified high-deductible health coverage. HSA savings are owned by the individual, you keep the accounts no matter where - or if - you work. They also roll over from year to year, so you can accumulate savings over time. Some HSAs accumulate interest and dividends that are tax-free or tax-deferred. The money in these accounts can be used towards all kinds of medical expenses, including those not covered by your high-deductible health plan, such as dental care or over-the-counter medication. An HSA is also a form of tax-deferred retirement account that can be more easily drawn upon for emergencies than their IRA counterparts.
Old Age Travel Insurance
At present time old age concern travel insurance is available for persons over fifty years of age. Elder citizens have out of ordinary concerns when traveling. That is what this travel insurance coverage is meant to do seniors’ citizen can travel safely and they can put to rest the difficulties and fears of running into problems while on a trip or on vacation.
Those who are traveling with the entertaining vehicle might be anxious about breaking down anywhere in the huge American landscape. This type of coverage can be there for such a condition. Others can be concerned about falling ill and incurring high medicinal expenses in a not so common place. In age travel insurance type it can cover all.
Those who are traveling with the entertaining vehicle might be anxious about breaking down anywhere in the huge American landscape. This type of coverage can be there for such a condition. Others can be concerned about falling ill and incurring high medicinal expenses in a not so common place. In age travel insurance type it can cover all.
Types of insurance
Any risk that can be quantified can potentially be insured. Specific kinds of risk that may give rise to claims are known as "perils". An insurance policy will set out in detail which perils are covered by the policy and which are not. Below are (non-exhaustive) lists of the many different types of insurance that exist. A single policy may cover risks in one or more of the categories set out below. For example, auto insurance would typically cover both property risk (covering the risk of theft or damage to the car) and liability risk (covering legal claims from causing an accident). A homeowner's insurance policy in the U.S. typically includes property insurance covering damage to the home and the owner's belongings, liability insurance covering certain legal claims against the owner, and even a small amount of coverage for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's property.
Business insurance can be any kind of insurance that protects businesses against risks. Some principal subtypes of business insurance are the various kinds of professional liability insurance, also called professional indemnity insurance, which are discussed below under that name; and the business owner's policy, which bundles into one policy many of the kinds of coverage that a business owner needs, in a way analogous to how homeowners insurance bundles the coverages that a homeowner needs.
Business insurance can be any kind of insurance that protects businesses against risks. Some principal subtypes of business insurance are the various kinds of professional liability insurance, also called professional indemnity insurance, which are discussed below under that name; and the business owner's policy, which bundles into one policy many of the kinds of coverage that a business owner needs, in a way analogous to how homeowners insurance bundles the coverages that a homeowner needs.
Clamis
Claims and loss handling is the materialized utility of insurance; it is the actual "product" paid for, though one hopes it will never need to be used. Claims may be filed by insureds directly with the insurer or through brokers or agents. The insurer may require that the claim be filed on its own proprietary forms, or may accept claims on a standard industry form such as those produced by ACORD.
Insurance company claim departments employ a large number of claims adjusters supported by a staff of records management and data entry clerks. Incoming claims are classified based on severity and are assigned to adjusters whose settlement authority varies with their knowledge and experience. The adjuster undertakes a thorough investigation of each claim, usually in close cooperation with the insured, determines its reasonable monetary value, and authorizes payment. Adjusting liability insurance claims is particularly difficult because there is a third party involved (the plaintiff who is suing the insured) who is under no contractual obligation to cooperate with the insurer and in fact may regard the insurer as a deep pocket. The adjuster must obtain legal counsel for the insured (either inside "house" counsel or outside "panel" counsel), monitor litigation that may take years to complete, and appear in person or over the telephone with settlement authority at a mandatory settlement conference when requested by the judge.
In managing the claims handling function, insurers seek to balance the elements of customer satisfaction, administrative handling expenses, and claims overpayment leakages. As part of this balancing act, fraudulent insurance practices are a major business risk that must be managed and overcome. Disputes between insurers and insureds over the validity of claims or claims handling practices occasionally escalate into litigation; see insurance bad faith
Insurance company claim departments employ a large number of claims adjusters supported by a staff of records management and data entry clerks. Incoming claims are classified based on severity and are assigned to adjusters whose settlement authority varies with their knowledge and experience. The adjuster undertakes a thorough investigation of each claim, usually in close cooperation with the insured, determines its reasonable monetary value, and authorizes payment. Adjusting liability insurance claims is particularly difficult because there is a third party involved (the plaintiff who is suing the insured) who is under no contractual obligation to cooperate with the insurer and in fact may regard the insurer as a deep pocket. The adjuster must obtain legal counsel for the insured (either inside "house" counsel or outside "panel" counsel), monitor litigation that may take years to complete, and appear in person or over the telephone with settlement authority at a mandatory settlement conference when requested by the judge.
In managing the claims handling function, insurers seek to balance the elements of customer satisfaction, administrative handling expenses, and claims overpayment leakages. As part of this balancing act, fraudulent insurance practices are a major business risk that must be managed and overcome. Disputes between insurers and insureds over the validity of claims or claims handling practices occasionally escalate into litigation; see insurance bad faith
Life insurance
Life insurance provides a monetary benefit to a decedent's family or other designated beneficiary, and may specifically provide for income to an insured person's family, burial, funeral and other final expenses. Life insurance policies often allow the option of having the proceeds paid to the beneficiary either in a lump sum cash payment or an annuity.
Annuities provide a stream of payments and are generally classified as insurance because they are issued by insurance companies and regulated as insurance and require the same kinds of actuarial and investment management expertise that life insurance requires. Annuities and pensions that pay a benefit for life are sometimes regarded as insurance against the possibility that a retiree will outlive his or her financial resources. In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance and, from an underwriting perspective, are the mirror image of life insurance.
Certain life insurance contracts accumulate cash values, which may be taken by the insured if the policy is surrendered or which may be borrowed against. Some policies, such as annuities and endowment policies, are financial instruments to accumulate or liquidate wealth when it is needed.
In many countries, such as the U.S. and the UK, the tax law provides that the interest on this cash value is not taxable under certain circumstances. This leads to widespread use of life insurance as a tax-efficient method of saving as well as protection in the event of early death.
In U.S., the tax on interest income on life insurance policies and annuities is generally deferred. However, in some cases the benefit derived from tax deferral may be offset by a low return. This depends upon the insuring company, the type of policy and other variables (mortality, market return, etc.). Moreover, other income tax saving vehicles (e.g., IRAs, 401(k) plans, Roth IRAs) may be better alternatives for value accumulation.
Auto insurance
Auto insurance protects you against financial loss if you have an accident. It is a contract between you and the insurance company. You agree to pay the premium and the insurance company agrees to pay your losses as defined in your policy. Auto insurance provides property, liability and medical coverage:Property coverage pays for damage to or theft of your car. Liability coverage pays for your legal responsibility to others for bodily injury or property damage.
Medical coverage pays for the cost of treating injuries, rehabilitation and sometimes lost wages and funeral expenses.
An auto insurance policy comprises six kinds of coverage. Most countries require you to buy some, but not all, of these coverages. If you're financing a car, your lender may also have requirements. Most auto policies are for six months to a year.
In the United States, your insurance company should notify you by mail when it’s time to renew the policy and to pay your premium.
History of insurince
some sense we can say that insurance appears simultaneously with the appearance of human society. We know of two types of economies in human societies: money economies (with markets, money, financial instruments and so on) and non-money or natural economies (without money, markets, financial instruments and so on). The second type is a more ancient form than the first. In such an economy and community, we can see insurance in the form of people helping each other. For example, if a house burns down, the members of the community help build a new one. Should the same thing happen to one's neighbour, the other neighbours must help. Otherwise, neighbours will not receive help in the future. This type of insurance has survived to the present day in some countries where modern money economy with its financial instruments is not widespread (for example countries in the territory of the former Soviet Union).Turning to insurance in the modern sense (i.e., insurance in a modern money economy, in which insurance is part of the financial sphere), early methods of transferring or distributing risk were practised by Chinese and Babylonian traders as long ago as the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, respectively.[8] Chinese merchants travelling treacherous river rapids would redistribute their wares across many vessels to limit the loss due to any single vessel's capsizing. The Babylonians developed a system which was recorded in the famous Code of Hammurabi, c. 1750 BC, and practised by early Mediterranean sailing merchants. If a merchant received a loan to fund his shipment, he would pay the lender an additional sum in exchange for the lender's guarantee to cancel the loan should the shipment be stolen or lost at sea.
Achaemenian monarchs of Ancient Persia were the first to insure their people and made it official by registering the insuring process in governmental notary offices. The insurance tradition was performed each year in Norouz (beginning of the Iranian New Year); the heads of different ethnic groups as well as others willing to take part, presented gifts to the monarch. The most important gift was presented during a special ceremony. When a gift was worth more than 10,000 Derrik (Achaemenian gold coin) the issue was registered in a special office. This was advantageous to those who presented such special gifts. For others, the presents were fairly assessed by the confidants of the court. Then the assessment was registered in special offices.
The purpose of registering was that whenever the person who presented the gift registered by the court was in trouble, the monarch and the court would help him. Jahez, a historian and writer, writes in one of his books on ancient Iran: "[W]henever the owner of the present is in trouble or wants to construct a building, set up a feast, have his children married, etc. the one in charge of this in the court would check the registration. If the registered amount exceeded 10,000 Derrik, he or she would receive an amount of twice as much."[1]
A thousand years later, the inhabitants of Rhodes invented the concept of the 'general average'. Merchants whose goods were being shipped together would pay a proportionally divided premium which would be used to reimburse any merchant whose goods were jettisoned during storm or sinkage.
The Greeks and Romans introduced the origins of health and life insurance c. 600 AD when they organized guilds called "benevolent societies" which cared for the families and paid funeral expenses of members upon death. Guilds in the Middle Ages served a similar purpose. The Talmud deals with several aspects of insuring goods. Before insurance was established in the late 17th century, "friendly societies" existed in England, in which people donated amounts of money to a general sum that could be used for emergencies.
Separate insurance contracts (i.e., insurance policies not bundled with loans or other kinds of contracts) were invented in Genoa in the 14th century, as were insurance pools backed by pledges of landed estates. These new insurance contracts allowed insurance to be separated from investment, a separation of roles that first proved useful in marine insurance. Insurance became far more sophisticated in post-Renaissance Europe, and specialized varieties developed.
Some forms of insurance had developed in London by the early decades of the seventeenth century. For example, the will of the English colonist Robert Hayman mentions two "policies of insurance" taken out with the diocesan Chancellor of London, Arthur Duck. Of the value of £100 each, one relates to the safe arrival of Hayman's ship in Guyana and the other is in regard to "one hundred pounds assured by the said Doctor Arthur Ducke on my life". Hayman's will was signed and sealed on 17 November 1628 but not proved until 1633.[9] Toward the end of the seventeenth century, London's growing importance as a centre for trade increased demand for marine insurance. In the late 1680s, Edward Lloyd opened a coffee house that became a popular haunt of ship owners, merchants, and ships’ captains, and thereby a reliable source of the latest shipping news. It became the meeting place for parties wishing to insure cargoes and ships, and those willing to underwrite such ventures. Today, Lloyd's of London remains the leading market (note that it is not an insurance company) for marine and other specialist types of insurance, but it works rather differently than the more familiar kinds of insurance.
Insurance as we know it today can be traced to the Great Fire of London, which in 1666 devoured 13,200 houses. In the aftermath of this disaster, Nicholas Barbon opened an office to insure buildings. In 1680, he established England's first fire insurance company, "The Fire Office," to insure brick and frame homes.
The first insurance company in the United States underwrote fire insurance and was formed in Charles Town (modern-day Charleston), South Carolina, in 1732. Benjamin Franklin helped to popularize and make standard the practice of insurance, particularly against fire in the form of perpetual insurance. In 1752, he founded the Philadelphia Contributionship for the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire. Franklin's company was the first to make contributions toward fire prevention. Not only did his company warn against certain fire hazards, it refused to insure certain buildings where the risk of fire was too great, such as all wooden houses. In the United States, regulation of the insurance industry is highly Balkanized, with primary responsibility assumed by individual state insurance departments. Whereas insurance markets have become centralized nationally and internationally, state insurance commissioners operate individually, though at times in concert through a national insurance commissioners' organization. In recent years, some have called for a dual state and federal regulatory system (commonly referred to as the Optional federal charter (OFC)) for insurance similar to that which oversees state banks and national banks.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
